Atonement: Understanding the Biblical Foundation

Atonement lies at the heart of the Christian gospel—the divine response to sin, separation, and suffering. It is a doctrine as old as Eden and as urgent as the cross, rich in ritual, metaphor, and mystery. Here we will begin to explore the biblical foundations of atonement, revealing how this central theological concept developed from its ancient Hebrew origins into the cornerstone of Christian soteriology. In future articles we will look at the teachings, history and development of different theories of atonement in depth.

What is “Atonement”?

Etymology and Basic Definition

The English word “atonement” offers insight into its theological meaning through its etymology. Originally written as “at-one-ment,” the term literally means “the condition of being at one with others” or “the action of setting at one after discord or strife”¹. This reflects the core concept of reconciliation between parties who have been separated—specifically, the restoration of relationship between God and humanity.

In biblical contexts, atonement refers to the process by which sin and its effects are dealt with, allowing for reconciliation between God and sinful humans. This reconciliation requires addressing the fundamental problem of human transgression against divine law and the resulting alienation from God.

Hebrew Terminology: Kaphar

In the Old Testament, the primary Hebrew term for atonement is “kaphar” (כָּפַר), which carries the concrete meaning of “to cover” or “to remove a transgression”². This rich term is translated in various ways throughout the Old Testament:

• 71 times as “atonement” (e.g., Exodus 30:10, Leviticus 5:10)
• Seven times as “purge” (e.g., 1 Samuel 3:14, Psalm 65:3)
• Three times as “reconciliation” (e.g., Leviticus 8:15, 2 Chronicles 29:24)
• Once as “purge away” (Psalm 79:9)
• Once as “pacify” (Proverbs 16:14)²

The fundamental concept represented by kaphar is the covering or removal of sin—an offended party pardoning and removing the offense to restore relationship.

Greek Terminology: Katallage and Hilasterion

In the New Testament, several Greek terms convey aspects of atonement:

1. Katallage (καταλλαγή): Appearing in Romans 5:11 in the KJV as “atonement,” though most modern translations render it as “reconciliation.” It signifies “reconciliation, restoration, or favor”³.

2. Hilasterion (ἱλαστήριον): Used in Romans 3:25 and Hebrews 9:5, meaning “sacrifice of atonement” or “mercy seat.” As Moo explains in his authoritative Romans commentary, “Paul uses cultic language to describe how Christ’s sacrificial death has turned away God’s wrath”⁴.

Key Old Testament Passages

Leviticus 16: The Day of Atonement

The most detailed and significant Old Testament passage on atonement is Leviticus 16, which describes Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. The text provides this solemn instruction:

“And Aaron shall make atonement upon its horns once a year with the blood of the sin offering of atonement; once a year he shall make atonement upon it throughout your generations. It is most holy to the LORD.” (Exodus 30:10 NKJV)

The Day of Atonement ritual involved several critical elements:

1. Purification of the High Priest: “Aaron shall offer the bull as a sin offering, which is for himself, and make atonement for himself and for his house.” (Leviticus 16:6)

2. The Two Goats: “Then Aaron shall cast lots for the two goats: one lot for the LORD and the other lot for the scapegoat. And Aaron shall bring the goat on which the LORD’s lot fell, and offer it as a sin offering. But the goat on which the lot fell to be the scapegoat shall be presented alive before the LORD, to make atonement upon it, and to let it go as the scapegoat into the wilderness.” (Leviticus 16:8-10)

According to Milgrom’s definitive commentary on Leviticus, this ritual symbolically represented both purification and removal aspects of atonement:

• The sacrificed goat represented God’s justice being satisfied through the sprinkling of blood
• The scapegoat symbolized the transfer and removal of sins from the people⁵

Isaiah 53: The Suffering Servant

Isaiah 53 presents one of the most profound Old Testament passages pointing toward vicarious atonement, describing a suffering servant who bears the sins of others:

“Surely He has borne our griefs and carried our sorrows; yet we esteemed Him stricken, smitten by God, and afflicted. But He was wounded for our transgressions, He was bruised for our iniquities; the chastisement for our peace was upon Him, and by His stripes we are healed. All we like sheep have gone astray; we have turned, every one, to his own way; and the LORD has laid on Him the iniquity of us all.” (Isaiah 53:4-6 NKJV)

As Oswalt notes in his Isaiah commentary, this passage introduces several key atonement themes:

• Vicarious punishment - bearing the consequences of others’ sins
• Healing through suffering - restoration coming through sacrifice⁶

Other Significant Old Testament References

The concept of atonement extends throughout the Mosaic sacrificial system:

“For seven days you shall make atonement for the altar and sanctify it. And the altar shall be most holy. Whatever touches the altar must be holy.” (Exodus 29:37)

“For the life of the flesh is in the blood, and I have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement for your souls; for it is the blood that makes atonement for the soul.” (Leviticus 17:11)

As Hartley observes in his WBC commentary on Leviticus, these passages establish several foundational principles:

1. Atonement requires sacrifice
2. Blood symbolizes life given for atonement
3. The process purifies both people and sacred objects⁷

Key New Testament Passages

Romans 3:25 - Christ as Hilasterion

Paul’s epistle to the Romans presents Jesus as the ultimate sacrifice of atonement:

“God presented Christ as a sacrifice of atonement [hilasterion], through the shedding of his blood—to be received by faith. He did this to demonstrate his righteousness, because in his forbearance he had left the sins committed beforehand unpunished.” (Romans 3:25 NIV)

According to Cranfield’s landmark ICC commentary on Romans, this passage identifies Christ as both the sacrifice and the “mercy seat” (hilasterion)—the place where atonement blood was sprinkled in the tabernacle. This dual identification links Christ’s death directly to the Day of Atonement ritual while fulfilling and transcending it⁸.

Romans 5:11 - Receiving the Atonement

This verse contains the only direct use of “atonement” (katallage) in the King James New Testament:

“And not only so, but we also joy in God through our Lord Jesus Christ, by whom we have now received the atonement.” (Romans 5:11 KJV)

Dunn’s Word Biblical Commentary notes that most modern translations render this term as “reconciliation,” highlighting the relational restoration aspect of Christ’s work⁹.

Hebrews 10:3 - The Limitation of Animal Sacrifice

The book of Hebrews contrasts the temporary nature of Old Testament sacrifices with Christ’s permanent atonement:

“But in those sacrifices there is a reminder of sins every year.” (Hebrews 10:3)

Lane’s authoritative commentary on Hebrews explains how this passage highlights the annual sacrifices served as reminders of sin rather than permanent solutions, pointing to the need for a more perfect sacrifice¹⁰.

The Diversity of Images and Metaphors for Atonement in Scripture

The biblical writers employ a rich variety of metaphors to capture different aspects of Christ’s atoning work. These complementary images reveal the multifaceted nature of atonement.

1. Sacrificial Metaphor

The most prominent metaphor presents Christ’s death as the ultimate sacrifice, fulfilling and transcending the Levitical system:

“He Himself bore our sins in His own body on the tree, that we, having died to sins, might live for righteousness—by whose stripes you were healed.” (1 Peter 2:24 NKJV)

As Schreiner argues in his New Testament Theology, this metaphor emphasizes substitution, with the innocent dying in place of the guilty¹¹.

2. Legal/Courtroom Metaphor: Penal Substitution

This image portrays atonement using legal language, where:

“Christ entrusted himself to God, the Judge, claimed the punishment for our guilt, and granted us his law-abiding life…. In Jesus, God pardons our guilt, removes the sentence, and declares us just.”

As extensively developed in Packer’s classic “What Did the Cross Achieve?”, this metaphor is captured in hymns that speak of standing “unafraid” before the throne because “your love has met your law’s demand”¹².

3. Ransom/Redemption Metaphor

Jesus described his mission as giving “his life as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). This metaphor evokes the image of captives being freed through payment.

Leon Morris, in his definitive work “The Apostolic Preaching of the Cross,” explains: “By the worth of his life and cost of his sacrifice, Jesus sets us free from captivity to sin and slavery to the devil”¹³.

While the analogy has limits (God did not literally pay the devil), it powerfully conveys freedom from bondage to sin.

4. Victory Metaphor: Christus Victor

One of the earliest Christian understandings of atonement was the “Christus Victor” motif, which presents:

“Having disarmed principalities and powers, He made a public spectacle of them, triumphing over them in it.” (Col. 2:15 NKJV)

Gustaf Aulén, in his groundbreaking “Christus Victor,” reinterpreted this as the “classic” view, where “Christ’s death was not a payment to the Devil (Satan), but defeated the powers of evil, particularly Satan, which had held humankind in their dominion”¹⁴.

5. Reconciliation/Relationship Metaphor

This metaphor emphasizes the relational aspect of atonement—restoring broken fellowship between God and humanity:

“Atonement is what we do to fix relationships fractured by wrongdoing. To atone is, at first pass, to do something to repair this rupture by addressing the source of the rupture, namely the wrongdoing. The end goal is to become one, to be at one, or to reconcile.”

This understanding is comprehensively developed in Volf’s “Exclusion and Embrace,” a seminal work on reconciliation theology¹⁵.

The Integration of Multiple Metaphors

These diverse images should not be seen as competing or contradictory but as complementary facets of the same magnificent reality. Each metaphor illuminates a different aspect of Christ’s work:

• The sacrificial metaphor addresses the problem of sin’s defilement
• The legal metaphor addresses the problem of guilt and divine justice
• The ransom metaphor addresses the problem of bondage and enslavement
• The victory metaphor addresses the problem of opposing spiritual powers
• The reconciliation metaphor addresses the problem of broken relationship

As theologian Alister McGrath argues in his “Christian Theology: An Introduction,” the biblical writers employ these various metaphors precisely because no single image can capture the full richness of what Christ accomplished¹⁶.

Conclusion

The biblical roots of atonement reveal a concept far richer and more multifaceted than is often recognized. Originating in the Hebrew sacrificial system with its emphasis on blood, covering, and reconciliation, the concept develops through prophetic literature and finds its culmination in the New Testament’s presentation of Christ’s death.

What emerges is not a single, monolithic theory of atonement but a richly textured tapestry of complementary images—sacrifice, legal satisfaction, ransom, victory, and reconciliation. Each metaphor illuminates a different aspect of salvation, addressing various dimensions of the human predicament and divine solution.

As we continue to examine specific atonement theories in subsequent articles, we must keep in mind that these theories often emphasize particular biblical metaphors while potentially neglecting others. For me a comprehensive understanding of atonement requires appreciating the full range of biblical imagery and recognizing that each metaphor contributes to our understanding of the wondrous cross.

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